We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.

.

ab.duct   /&b'dVkt/ v [T] take sb away from their home, family, etc. using force:

·    He was abducted at gunpoint.

syn: kidnap, capture

ab.duc.tion  /&b'dVkSn/ n [C/U] the act of taking sb away illegally, esp. by using force:

·    The abduction of the two children was a tragic action.

syn: kidnapping

 Modifying a noun with a noun

Complements are words that come after linking verbs and modify nouns. The most common noun complements are adjectives and nouns, but can be many other parts of speech as well.

TestMagic uses the term noun complement more liberally than do some other grammar resources; doing so will make grammar explanations for tests much, much easier and faster.

Examples of complements

All the highlighted words or phrases below are complements.

My sister is a doctor.

Tomomi is happy.

The book is on the table.

Carl is here.

We should try to remain calm.

The test proved to be more difficult than we had imagined.

I consider you a friend.

Megumi called her ex-boyfriend a philistine.

A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and condition. (See Conditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)

B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:

1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:

Billy couldn’t swim.

He jumped off the pier. (contrast)

2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make dependent:

Although Billy couldn’t swim

He jumped off the pier.

3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important. When the adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually separated by a comma:

Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.

When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:

Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.

C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:

Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as

Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that

Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while

Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the event (that). See Conditional Sentences.

D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:

After he took lessons, George could swim well.

George could swim well after he took lessons.

Because he couldn’t swim, Billy drowned.

Billy drowned because he couldn’t swim.

Although he isn’t interested in food, Fred works as a cook.

Fred works as a cook although he isn’t interested in food.

If you want to write well, you must practice.

You must practice if you want to write well.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)

It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)

The car that she is driving is not hers.

(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)

Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:

1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

The book is on the table. + I like the book.

The man is here. + The man wants the book.

2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.

The book is on the table. + I like which

The man is here. + who wants the book

3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an adjective clause.

The book is on the table. + which I like

The man is here. + who wants the book

4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):

The book which I like is on the table.

The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.

1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.

These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.

WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.

WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.

WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.

THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).

2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.

WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:

The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =

The man whose wallet I found is happy.

The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =

The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=

I will never forget the day when I graduated.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

I will never forget the day on which I graduated.

I will never forget the day that I graduated.

I will never forget the day I graduated.

WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:

The building is new. + He works in the building. =

The building where he works is new.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

The building in which he works is new.

The building which he works in is new.

The building that he works in is new.

The building he works in is new.

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:

People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.

2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:

Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.

1. RP + BE = 0

People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)

People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)

Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)

Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)

2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)

People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)

Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)

Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:

A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:

What Billy did shocked his friends.

A noun clause can be an object of a verb:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

A noun clause can be a subject complement:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:

Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.

A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:

Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:

To change a statement to a noun clause use that:

I know + Billy made a mistake =

I know that Billy made a mistake.

To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:

George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =

George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.

To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:

I don’t know + Where is George? =

I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:

that

if, whether

Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why

Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.

correct:

That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

not correct:

* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:

not correct:

* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct:

Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)

not correct:

* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)

correct:

Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:

future if its action/state is later

He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.

He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.

present if its action/state is at the same time

He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.

past if its action/state is earlier

He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:

was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later

 

He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.

 

He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.

 

past if its action/state is at the same time

 

He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.

 

past perfect if its action/state is earlier

He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.

If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.

The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.

If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.

We learned that English is not easy.

The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:

Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:

That George learned how to swim is a miracle.

Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.

What Mary said confused her parents.

However you learn to spell is OK with me.

Noun clauses as objects of verbs:

We didn’t know that Billy would jump.

We didn’t know Billy would jump.

Can you tell me if Fred is here?

I don’t know where he is.

George eats whatever is on his plate.

Noun clauses as subject complements:

The truth is that Billy was not very smart.

The truth is Billy was not very smart.

The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.

The winner will be whoever runs fastest.

Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:

Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.

Noun clauses as adjective complements:

He is happy that he is learning English.

We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

آيلتس چيست؟What is IELTS?                                                                                                     

    آزمون آیلتس (IELTS= International English Language Testing System) جهت سنجش میزان آمادگی داوطلبان برای ادامه تحصیل، فراگیـری مهارتهـای تخصصـی و یـا کار و اقامـت در کشـورهـای انگلیسی زبان طراحی شـده است. ایـن آزمون مشترکاً تـوسط دانشگاه کمبریج، کنسول بریتانیـا (British Council) و مرکز IDP استرالیا در بیش از 500 مرکز در 120 کشور جهان برگزار می‌شود و سالانه چیزی حدود یک و نیم میلیون نفر در آن شرکت می‌کنند. نتایج این آزمون در کشورهای مشترک المنافع انگلستان و بسیاری دانشگاه های انگلیسی زبان در اروپا و ایالات متحده معتبر است.

    این آزمون در دو نوع مختلف موجود می‌باشد: آکادمیک (Academic) و عمومی (General Training).

افرادی که قصد تکمیل تحصیلات خود در دانشگاههای انگلیسی زبان را دارند (کارشناسی به بالا) باید از نوع آکادمیک این آزمون، و افرادی که به منظور گذراندن دوره‌های کوتاه‌مدت فنی و حرفه‌ای، اخذ دیپلم، کار و یا اقامت قصد سفـر به کشورهـای انگلیسی زبان را دارند، می‌توانند از نوع عمومی این آزمون استفاده کنند.البته ناگفته نماند که افرادی که دارای نوع آکادمیک آیلتس باشند می توانند از امتیازات مربوط به نوع عمومی آن استفاده کنند.
 

نحوه برگزاری آزمون آیلتس

    داوطلبان در چهار مهارت Listening، Reading، Writing، و Speaking مورد امتحان قرار می گیرند. همه داوطلبان (هم Academic .و هم General Training) در یک امتحان Listening و Speaking مشترک شرکت می کنند. ولی Reading و Writing آزمون آِیلتس آکادمیک با آزمون آیلتس عمومی  متفاوت است. سوالات به گونه ای طرح شده اند که تمامی رتبه ها را از داوطلب مبتدی تا داوطلب حرفه ای تحت پوشش قرار داده است. سه مهارت از چهار مهارت یعنی Listening، Reading، و Writing در یک روز مورد امتحان قرار می گیرند، و در بین آن هیچ زمان استراحتی وجود ندارد. ولی امتحان Speaking طبق اعلان قبلی معمولا یک هفته قبل و یا یک هفته بعد از امتحان برگزار می شود.

جدول زیر مدت زمان تخصیص یافته به بخش‌های مختلف این آزمون را نشان می‌دهد:
 

نمره قبولی

    در آزمون آیلتس هیچ حد نصابی برای قبولی وجود ندارد، بلکه مؤسسات و دانشگاههای مختلف حد نصاب مورد قبول خود را دارند. اما بطور کلی 9 نمره یا band در نظر گرفته شده است که در آن نمره 9 عالی، نمره 7 خوب، نمره 5 متوسط و نمره 3 به پایین ضعیف محسوب می‌شود.(اکثر دانشگاهها نمره آکادمیک 6 به بالا را می خواهند و اکثر کشورها از متقاضی مهاجرت نمره عمومی 6 به بالا رامی خواهند.ولی همانطور که در بالا ذکر شد شما اگر هنوز دو دل هستید که آیلتس را برای ادامه تحصیل می خواهید یا برای مهاجرت ،به شما دوست عزیز پیشنهاد می شود که آیلتس نوع آکادمیک را امتحان بدهید،در اینصورت قادر خواهید بود از امتیازات آیلتس ‍عمومي نیز بهره مند شوید.)

درآزمون  IELTS نمره منفی وجود ندارند.

    نتیجه تک تک مهارتها جداگانه اعلام می شود. و همچنین میانگین تمامی نتیجه ها، امتیاز نهایی داوطلب خواهد بود. همچنین تمامی نتیجه های امتحان رو به بالا گرد می شود. منظور این است که از قانون کلی گرد کردن در ریاضی تبعیت می کند به عنوان مثال اگر داوطلبی نمره 7.25 را کسب کند به نمره 7.5 گرد می شود ولی اگر داوطلبی نمره 7.1 را کسب کند به نمره 7 گرد خواهد شد.

لازم به ذکر است که نمره امتحان ایلتس فقط تا دو سال معتبر میباشد.

در زیر band های مختلف این آزمون بیان شده است:

A long time ago, a girl named Li-Li got married and went to live with her husband and mother-in-law. In a very short time, Li-Li found that she couldn't get along with her mother-in-law at all. Their personalities were very different, and Li-Li was angered by many of her mother-in-law's habits. In addition, she criticized Li-Li constantly. Days passed. The days turned into weeks. Li-Li and her mother-in-law never stopped arguing and fighting. What made the situation worse was that according to ancient Chinese tradition, Li-Li had to bow to her mother-in-law and obey her every wish.

All the anger and unhappiness in the house caused the poor husband great distress. Finally, Li-Li could not stand her mother-in-law's bad temper and dictatorship any longer. She decided to do something about it.

Li-Li went to see her father's good friend, Mr. Huang, who sold herbs. She told him about the situation and asked if he would give her some poison so that she could solve the problem for once and for all.
Mr. Huang thought for a while and finally said, “Li-Li, I will help you solve your problem, but you must listen to me and obey what I tell you.”
Li-Li said, "Yes, Mr. Huang, I will do whatever you tell me to do."

Mr. Huang went into the back room and returned with a package of herbs after a few minutes.
He told Li-Li, "You can't use a quick-acting poison to get rid of your mother-in-law because that would cause people to become suspicious. Therefore, I have given you a number of herbs that will slowly build up poison in her body. Every other day, prepare some pork or chicken and put a little of these herbs in her serving. Now, in order to make sure that nobody suspects you when she dies, you must be very careful to act very friendly towards her. Don't argue with her, obey her every wish, and treat her like a queen."

Li-Li was so happy. She thanked Mr. Huang and hurried home to carry out her plot of murdering her mother-in-law. Weeks and months went by. Li-Li would serve the specially treated food to her mother-in-law every other day. She remembered what Mr. Huang had said about avoiding suspicion so she controlled her temper, obeyed her mother-in-law and treated her like her own mother. After six months, the situation in the whole household had changed. Li-Li managed to control her temper so much that she almost never got mad or upset at her mother-in-law anymore. She hadn't had an argument with her mother-in-law in six months, who seemed much kinder and easier to get along with. The mother-in-law's attitude toward Li-Li had also changed and she began to love Li-Li like her own daughter. She kept telling friends and relatives that Li-Li was the best daughter-in-law one could ever find. Li-Li and her mother-in-law treated each other like a real mother and daughter. Li-Li's husband was very happy to see what was happening.

One day, Li-Li went to Mr. Huang and asked for his help again.
She said, "Dear Mr Huang, please help me to prevent the poison from killing my mother-in-law! She has changed into such a nice woman and I love her like my own mother. I do not want her to die because of the poison I gave her."
Mr. Huang smiled and nodded his head.
"Li-Li, there's nothing to worry about. I never gave you any poison. The herbs I gave you were vitamins to improve her health. The only poison was in your mind and your attitude toward her, but that has all been washed away by the love which you gave to her."

     Looking up, Lisa could see her pain reflected in the man's eyes. For the first time in months she didn't feel alone, she felt the unbearable burden begin to lift from her, only a bit but it was a start. She began to believe that maybe she had a future after all and maybe it could be with this man, with his kind hazel eyes, wet with their shared tears.

     They had come here to dissolve their marriage but maybe there was hope. Lisa stood up and took James by the hand and led him away from the bar towards the beech where they had made their vows to each other three years ago. Tomorrow she would cancel the divorce; tonight they would work on renewing their promises.

ول کردن-دست برداشتن                                                               Give up

کاری را به سرانجام رساندن Go through with something                                     

پشتکار داشتن Hang in there                                                                                

به کاری دل بستن(چسبیدن)Stick with something                                                   

دل شوره داشتنsweat something out                                                                    

دوری کردن ازکاریکه رضایت نداریمTo duck the issue                                         

تن در دادن به کاریFace up to something                                                            

تک وتنها،دست تنها رهاکردنLeave someone high and dry                                 

به گردن دیگری انداختن pass the buck                                                                   

به گردن دیگری انداختن  Point one's finger at someone                                      

به گردن گرفتن مسئولیت  Shoulder the responsibility                                        

از زیرکاردررفتن،شانه خالی کردنWorm out of something                                    

فوت آب بودنBe abreeze                                                                                    

دست وپاچلفتی   Be all thumbs                                                                             

مثل آب خوردنBe easy as a pie                                                                            

پنجه طلایی  Have a golden touch                                                                      

دستش خوبهHave a green thumb                                                                          

قلق کاری را در دست داشتنHave aknack for something                                      

شم کاری را داشتن Have nose for something                                                       

دست وپاچلفتیHave two left feet                                                                         

تا بوق سگ مطالعه کردنBurn the midnight oil                                                    

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Use present factual conditional sentences to talk about general truths and scientific facts.
Ex: If it's noon in Taipei, it's 2:00 P.M. in Brisbane.
Ex: If air expands, it becomes lighter.

2. You can also use present factual conditional sentences to talk about habits and recurring events (things that happen again and again).
Ex: If Jamie flies, he orders a special meal.
Ex: If John is traveling far, he always flies.

3. You can also use modals in the result clause.
Ex: If you practice your Japanese everyday, you can improve quickly.
Ex: You might learn more if you listen to Japanese tapes.

4. Use the imperative in the result clause to give instructions, commands, and invitations that depend on a certain condition.
Ex: If you come to Melbourne, stay with us.

5. You can begin conditional sentences with the "if" clause or the result clause. The meaning is the same.
Ex: "If the light goes on, fasten your seat belt." OR "Fasten your seat belt if the light goes on."

Unreal conditional sentence present

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Use present unreal conditional sentences to talk about unreal, untrue, imagined, or impossible conditions and their results.

Ex. If Grace had more time, she would travel. (But Grace doesn't have time, so she doesn't travel.)

2. Use the simple past tense in the if clause. Use would + base form of the verb in the result clause.

Ex. If Eric knew the answer, he would tell you.

3. You can use a modal in the result clause.

Ex. If Alisa had time, she could read more.

4. You can begin conditional sentences with the if clause or the result clause. The meaning is the same.

Ex. Jack would more if he had more money.

5. Statements beginning with if I were you, ... are often used to give advice.

Ex. If I were you, I'd travel to many countries.

زمون جی آر ای یا همان GRE مخفف عبارت Graduate Records Examination می باشد. همان طور که از نام این آزمون مشخص می باشد، هدف آن سنجش توانایی ها و معلومات فارغ التحصیلان می باشد. این آزمون معمولا برای ورود به مقاطع تحصیلی بالاتر از کارشناسی مورد نیاز می باشد. دانشگاه های آمریکایی و کانادایی معمولا داشتن نمره بالا در این آزمون را یکی از شرایط ادامه تحصیل قرار می دهند زیرا آنها معتقدند که دانشجویان علاوه بر یاد گرفتن مطالب علمی و تخصصی بایستی در زمینه سیاسی، قدرت استنتاج و درک متون عمومی دشوار را کسب کرده باشند.

این آزمون در دو سطح General و Subject برگزار می شود که دارای 3 قسمت درک زبانی (verbal)، کمی (quantative)و قسمت تحلیلی (analytic) می باشد. در قسمت زبانی معمولا متضاد و مترادف کلمات دشوار پرسیده می شود و در واقع فقط بستگی به میزان لغات دانشجو توجه می کند. لغات پرسیده شده واقعا دشوار هستند و برای اکثر دانشجویان نا آشنا. در قسمت کمی سوالات ریاضی نسبتا ساده ای پرسیده می شود تا توانایی های ابتدایی فرد مورد سنجش قرار گیرد. قسمت تحلیلی هم در مورد تحلیل یک موضوع بحث بر انگیز می باشد و به صورت نوشتاری می باشد. یعنی از فرد خواسته می شود تا در مورد موضوع مشخصی متنی نوشته شود و تحلیلهای شخصی بیان گردد.

این آزمون فعلا در 3 مرکز سازمان سنجش، دانشگاه صنعتی اصفهان و ارومیه برگزار می گردد. لازم به ذکر است که این آزمون در ایران فعلا فقط به صورت pBT برگزار می گردد و بر اساس قانون ets در هر کشوری که آزمون iBT برگزار می گردد دیگر آزمون به صورت pBT برگزار نمی گردد. در ضمن آزمون Subject فقط به صورت pBT برگزار می گردد درحالیکه آزمون General هم به صورت pBT  و هم به صورت iBT برگزار می گردد. 

مقدمه

امروزه "کسی که توان خواندن و نوشتن را دارد." پاسخ مناسبی برای سؤال "فرد باسواد کیست؟" نمی باشد. دنیای با شتاب و با تحرک رو به پیش امروز که در آن بسیاری از مفاهیم، متحول شده و گاه تا مرز کاملی نیز پیش رفته است معنی سواد را نیز تغییر داده است.

 کشورهای توسعه یافته صنعتی و برخی از کشورهای در حال توسعه دانستن یک یا دو زبان خارجی را به عنوان یکی از مؤلفه های با سوادی می داند بعضی ها بر این باورند که در دهکده جهانی امروز کسانی می توانند نقشهای مؤثری برعهده بگیرند که از ابزار ارتباط با دیگران یعنی زبان، بهره کافی برده باشند؛ از رهگذر چیزهایی که گفته شد کارشناسان زبان خارجی به مثابه پل ارتباطی میان فرهنگها و تمدنهای مختلف عمل می کنند و این پدیده برای کشورهایی همچون ایران که از آبشخور تمدن و فرهنگ قرون، سیراب می شوند از اهمیت بیشتری برخوردار است.

معرفی و کاربرد

رشته زبان انگلیسی در دانشگاه‌های ایران رشته‌ای است جذاب، چالش انگیز و لذت بخش. این رشته فرصت‌های جالبی برای مطالعه طیف وسیعی از آثار ادبی، نقد ادبی و گونه‌های ادبی به زبان انگلیسی از سراسر جهان را برای دانشجویان لیسانس و تحصیلات تکمیلی فراهم می‌آورد. دانشجویانی که در این رشته تحصیل می‌کنند این فرصت را دارند تا با جدیدترین تحولات سال‌های اخیر در زمینه نقد ادبی آشنا شده و به مهارت‌های نگارش انتقادی که نه فقط برای مطالعات دیگرشان که برای شغل‌های آینده‌شان نیز مفید است، مجهز گردند.  

همچنین تحصیل در رشته ادبیات انگلیسی قابلیت‌ها و توانایی ما را برای دبیری زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی فراهم می‌كند. تحصیلات دانشگاهی رشته زبان انگلیسی اگر همراه با تلاش و پیگیری‌های مستمر دانشجو صورت پذیرد و دانشجو در طول تحصیل خود همت خود را به صورت کامل بر مطالعه آثار خارجی قرار دهد، امکان فعالیت در بخش‌های تخصصی‌تر مثل آموزش شعر، رمان و نمایش‌نامه انگلیسی را برای دانشجوی این رشته فراهم می‌كند.

گرایشها

این رشته شامل دو گرایش ادبیات و مترجمی زبان است که در زیر شرح داده شده است:

رشته زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی

در رشته زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی طی سه ترم، دروس پایه كه شامل خواندن، نگارش و مكالمه است، آموزش داده می شود تا دانشجو با مسائل اساسی زبان آشنا گشته و آماده مطالعه دروس تخصصی خود گردد. كه دروسی شامل ادبیات انگلیسی (درآمدی بر ادبیات، فنون و صناعات ادبی، تاریخ ادبیات، شعر، رمان و نمایشنامه انگلیسی)، ترجمه (ترجمه متون ساده و ادبی)، زبان شناسی و روش تدریس و آزمون سازی می شود.

دروس رشته زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی به چهار بخش اصلی انگلیسی عمومی، زبان شناسی، روش تدریس و ادبیات تقسیم می شود كه در بخش انگلیسی عمومی بر روی دستور زبان، دامنه لغت و روش های خواندن كار می‌شود تا دانشجو بتواند برای خواندن هر متنی تبحر لازم را پیدا كند.

در بخش زبان شناسی نیز اصول آواشناسی و ساختارهای زبانی و چگونگی شكل گیری آنها آموزش داده می شود و در نتیجه دانشجو نسبت به ساختار زبان حساس تر شده و تشخیص می دهد زبانی كه صحبت می كند دارای چه ریشه ها و پایه هایی است و این باعث بالا رفتن دقت فكری او می شود.

دروس مربوط به روش تدریس و آزمون سازی نیز به دانشجویان روش ای نوین تدریس زبان انگلیسی را می آموزد و بالاخره دروس بخش ادبیات، اطلاعات دانشجویان را نسبت به فرهنگ انگلیسی زبانان وسعت می بخشد چرا كه بخش اصلی فرهنگ یك ملت در ادبیات آن منعكس می شود و در نتیجه وقتی با ادبیات قومی آشنا شویم، با فرهنگ آن قوم آشنا خواهیم شد. در ضمن دانشجویان این گرایش در 8 واحد با ترجمه ساده و ادبی متون زبان انگلیسی آشنا می شوند.

برخلاف تصور عامه مردم، ما در دانشگاه با الفبای زبان انگلیسی آشنا نمی شویم بلكه دانشجوی این رشته پیش از ورود به دانشگاه باید هم انگلیسی بفهمد و هم به این زبان سخن بگوید. و سپس در اینجا با سیر ادبیات انگلیسی و یا نقد ادبی كه از افلاطون شروع می شود تا دوره معاصر ادامه می یابد، آشنا شود. یعنی ما در اینجا از زبان انگلیسی به عنوان ابزاری برای یاد گرفتن ادبیات انگلیسی استفاده می كنیم.

رشته مترجمی زبان انگلیسی

در گذشته شعار اصلی دانشگاه و دانشگاهیان این بود كه: "علم قدرت است." اما اكنون به این نتیجه رسیدند كه: "ترجمه قدرت است."

با كمی دقت می توان به حقیقت این سخن كه چندی پیش در سمینار یكی از دانشگاههای انگلستان مطرح گردید، پی برد. چرا كه هر كشوری برای ارتباط سیاسی، اجتماعی، اقتصادی، علمی، فرهنگی و حتی مذهبی با كشورهای دیگر نیاز به مترجمانی قدرتمند و متبحر دارد. و این مساله در ارتباط با زبان انگلیسی اهمیت بیشتری پیدا می كند چون انگلیسی زبان مادری حداقل 12 یا 13 كشور جهان است و به عنوان یك زبان بین المللی شناخته شده است.

دروس رشته مترجمی زبان انگلیسی به سه بخش دروس عمومی، تخصصی پایه و تخصصی اصلی تقسیم می شود كه دروس عمومی و تخصصی پایه بین دو رشته زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی و مترجمی زبان انگلیسی مشترك است و دروس تخصصی اصلی مجزا می باشد. یعنی دانشجویان رشته مترجمی در این بخش، انواع دروس ترجمه مثل ترجمه انفرادی، ترجمه پیشرفته، ترجمه متون ادبی و اصول و روش ترجمه را می گذرانند و دانشجویان زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی شعر، ادبیات نمایشی، رمان و تاریخ ادبیات انگلیسی را مطالعه می كنند.

در ضمن لازم است گفته شود كه حتی در بخش دروس تخصصی اصلی نیز واحدهای مشتركی بین دو رشته وجود دارد كه از جمله می توان به زبان شناسی اشاره كرد.

در ترم های اول این رشته، چارچوب اولیه ترجمه و تفاوت زبان ها به دانشجویان آموزش داده می شود و تئوری ترجمه به ساده ترین وجه مطرح می گردد. در ترم های آخر نیز انواع تئوری های ترجمه مطرح شده و یك نگرش نظری كلی در مورد ترجمه به دانشجویان داده می شود و همچنین دانشجویان به مرور ترجمه جملات كوتاه و بلند و سپس جملات پیچیده و مركب و یا بندهای طولانی و بالاخره ترجمه متون ادبی و یا متونی كه دارای محتوای سنگینی هستند می پردازند. در ضمن دانشجویان این رشته با مطالعه درس زبان شناسی، ساختار زبان انگلیسی را به جای یاد گرفتن، لمس می كنند. و به همین دلیل سریع تر و مطلوب تر از زبانی به زبان دیگر گذر كرده و قادر به ترجمه كتبی یا شفاهی زبان می گردند.

زبان انگلیسی در ایران

رشته مترجمی یکی از رشته‌های نوپای دانشگاه‌های ایران است که در آن کار ترجمه از فارسی به زبان‌های مختلف مانند انگلیسی، فرانسه، آلمانی و بلعکس به دانشجویان آموخته می‌شود. در میان این زبان‌ها، مترجمی زیان انگلیسی رایج تر از بقیه می‌باشد.

این رشته در ایران در سطح کارشناسی در دانشگاه‌ها و موسسات متعددی وجود دارد، ولی در مقطع کارشناسی ارشد فقط در دانشگاه‌های علامه طباطبایی تهران، اصفهان، مشهد و دانشگاه آزاد تهران و دانشگاه آزادبندر عباس ,علوم تحقیقات تهران و علوم تحقیقات فارس تدریس می‌شود. مقطع دکترای این رشته در حال حاضر در ایران وجود ندارد. از نظر موقعیت شغلی این رشته آنچنان که باید وشاید جای خود را در جامعه باز نکرده‌است.